Things That Garbage Can Reveal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Things That Garbage Can Reveal - Essay Example The garbage from the trash bin depicts variety and the corresponding quantity of materials in regard to distinct socioeconomic discrepancy amidst the underlying activities and prevailing eating habits of every property(Pellow, 34-156).Cheap and widely available foods such as grains, fruits, nuts, local fish, chicken eggs and corresponding lentils depict relatively lower socioeconomic class since they are of minimal cost. Conversely, expensive meat and corresponding remains of salted fish depict the high socioeconomic class of household. Moreover, the waste from the neighboring drains that turned up less of a diversity of foods depicted immersed socioeconomic discrepancy amidst neighbors. Garbage also reveals the economic status of the household in regard to the quantity packages they buy that is relatively lower income families purchase products in smaller packages whilst corresponding upper-income families purchase massive economy-size substances. A larger packet of pizza, sausages, burger, crisps, ice cream and soft drinks reveals that the underlying family had relatively higher income(Pellow, 34-156). Larger quantities also reveal that the families were large whilst few packets depict relatively smaller family. In sum, the kind of garbage normally depicts the socioeconomic class of the underlying household, the number of persons within the household, economic welfare and culture. Moreover, archaeologists largely depend on garbage in determining of the culture of a family and consequently neighborhood.

Analysis of data handling Essay Example for Free

Analysis of data handling Essay To get an improved understanding of the problems faced in an online retail data handling system I am going to conduct a questionnaire and gain data from some data capture forms. After gaining information from my questionnaire and data capture forms I now have a clear understanding of how a data handling system is implemented for an online retail store. I now know what information will be kept and which will only be temporary. The products and the customer information will be kept permanently. The customer information is kept permanent but can be changed at any point i. e. a change of address, phone no. etc. When purchases are made little data is added to that which is already stored. The invoice brings together customer information and pairs it with product information. The information added to the invoice would be date of purchase; this information would then automatically create an expected date of arrival and the delivery process, transport, dispatch etc. When customer information is gained it is not input by a member of staff. The information is fed automatically from the websites data capture form which is filled out by the customer. The only information input by staff is the stock information as prices calculation delivery date etc is done automatically by the system. They had a WAN, wide area network. Each of the computer terminals could access the same data so that invoices and other information can be viewed at the same time on different computers. They were also able to check credit card details with banks through their WAN. The data system can produce information for both staff and online customers. Customers can view their past orders or there current account details whilst all data can be viewed by staff. They use standard input devices, keyboard and mouse, as there is no need for particular input devices, for example bar code reader, scanner.

Rhythmic Contractions And Relaxation Of Isolated Gut

Rhythmic Contractions And Relaxation Of Isolated Gut The isolated gut has a spontaneous activity with rhythmic contractions and relaxation of its smooth muscles. Various drugs that affect the smooth muscles by either direct or indirect stimulation were used (Day Vane 1963). These drugs were acetylcholine, atropine, adrenaline, noradrenaline and d-tubocurarine. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter (Martini 2009, p. 304) that is released by a neuron and acts directly on the plasma membrane of another cell, in this case smooth muscles. It affects both the muscarinic and nicotinic receptors located on the smooth muscle membrane (Broadley Kelly 2001). The effects of acetylcholine on the muscarinic receptors can be identified by another drug, atropine (Broadley Kelly 2001). Atropine is an alkaloid found in several plants (Broadley Kelly 2001) and inhibits binding of acetylcholine to post synaptic membrane of smooth muscle cells (Martini 2009, p. 425). Adrenaline and noradrenaline are hormones released from the suprarenal glands and induce relaxation of the smooth muscles by binding to the adrenergic receptors. They are called catecholamines because of their structure (shown in figure 1). D-tubocurarine is an alkaloid drug derived from curare and is a neuromuscular nicotinic receptor antagonist1. It prevents acetylcholine from binding to the postsynaptic membrane of muscle fibres (martini 2009, p. 425). AIM The aim of this experiment was to investigate the effects of acetylcholine, atropine, adrenaline, noradrenaline and d-tubocurarine on the smooth muscles of the gut. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials Transducer Heater Heat exchanger chart recorder experimental tissue (rat intestine) organ bath with carbogen-bubbled Krebs Henseleit solution at 37ËÅ ¡C drugs used in the experiment were: 1 mg/mL acetylcholine 1 mg/mL atropine 1 g/mL adrenaline 1mg/mL noradrenaline 1 mg/mL d-tubocurarine Methods At the start of the experiment, the transducer was calibrated using weights to allow conversion of the amount of displacement of the intestine into electrical signals which are then recorded. The amount of movement measured corresponds to the type of drug added. The experimental rat tissue that was dissected previously was supported in a 100 mL organ bath containing carbogen-bubbled Krebs Henseleit solution at 37ËÅ ¡C aerated with a mixture of 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide. The tissue was anchored to the device that applied force to stretch the muscle until a steady rate of contraction was obtained. The force of contraction was then measured and converted to electrical signals which were recorded by the chart recorder. Some equilibration time was allowed for the preparation to stabilise its activity in the organ bath before starting the experiment. The smooth muscles of the tissue had spontaneous activity before the administration of any drug. The exact concentration and volu me of the drugs administered were then calculated to obtain the right concentration. A volume of 0.1ml of 1mg/mL of acetylcholine was first administered to the muscles and its effects were recorded. The organ bath was drained and refilled so as to resume its baseline activity. Three increments of 0.025 ml of 1mg/mL atropine were added to the organ bath periodically to see its effect on the smooth muscles. Another dose of 0.5 mL of 1mg/mL acetylcholine was added into the organ bath without draining and refilling. The effects were then observed on the chart recorder. The organ bath was drained and refilled again. 0.1mL of 1gm/mL adrenaline was added to the water bath. The organ bath was again drained and refilled. 0.1mL of 1mg/ml noradrenaline was added to the organ bath. The organ bath was again drained and refilled. 0.5mL of 1mg/mL acetylcholine was added and the effects were observed. The organ bath was again drained and refilled. 0.025 mL of 1 mg/mL d-tubocurarine was added to the water bath and the effects were recorded. Lastly without draining the organ bath, two increments of 0.5ml of 1mg/mL of acetylcholine was added at regular intervals and its effect was recorded. RESULTS Calculation of the volume of the drugs used: acetylcholine Original concentration C:Documents and Settings7168241Local SettingsTemporary Internet FilesContent.Word22032011079.jpg Figure 1: Experiment setup Table 1: Effect of the drugs administered on the smooth muscles of the gut Drug administered Effect on smooth muscle observed. Acetylcholine Increase in contraction rate Conductance and amplitude increased Atropine Decrease in contraction rate- muscle relaxes Decrease in amplitude, tone and frequency Adrenaline Large decrease in amplitude Effect was very strong ( alpha and beta receptors on smooth muscles) Noradrenaline Small decrease in amplitude ( it has alpha receptors) Acetylcholine Increase in contraction rate Conductance and amplitude increased D-tubocurarine No effect as the muscle tone remained constant Acetylcholine Increase in contraction rate Conductance and large increase in amplitude when first dose was added and slight decrease in the amplitude when second dose was added DISCUSSION The muscle had spontaneous activity before the addition of the drugs. They were self excitatory and depolarized without the addition of any drugs. WHY As observed in table 1, acetylcholine increased the rate of contraction in the smooth muscles. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter released at the neurojunction of the nerve and the smooth muscles. Contraction of the smooth muscle achieved is due to acetylcholines effect on membrane permeability via the second messengers since it cant enter the cells interior. Acetylcholine binds to the muscarinic receptors and causes GTP binding to the alpha subunit of the G-protein. The GTP-bound alpha subunit activates the production of the second messengers by activating phosphoinosidase C (PIC). PIC hydrolyses phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-biphosphate which then forms inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 and DAG bind to the receptors on the sarcoplasm reticulum and cause the release of calcium ions into the intracellular f luid to initiate contraction of the muscle (Broadley Kelly 2001). Acetylcholine also causes the contraction of the smooth muscles by depolarizing the membrane directly via the nicotinic receptors. As seen in the table 1, adding atropine to the water bath caused decrease in the amplitude of the stimulus. This is due to the fact that atropine is a reversible competitive antagonist for acetylcholine at the muscarinic receptors. It has no effect on its binding on nicotinic receptors (Evers Maze 2004). It prevents acetylcholine that has built up at the neuromuscular junction from binding to the receptors and depolarizing the post synaptic membrane thus preventing the generation of an impulse in the cell. Acetylcholine produces a response when it binds to the receptors whereas atropine binds to the same receptors as acetylcholine without producing a response. It just makes the receptors unavailable for acetylcholine (Abel 1974, p.106). When another dose of acetylcholine was added to the water bath, the amplitude is seen increasing to a lower intensity than before atropine was added and transmission is restored and the muscle begins to contract. This is due to the fact that this new dose of acetylcholine displaces atropine from the receptors since it is a reversible antagonist. When adrenaline was added to the organ bath, the amplitude dropped by a large amount due to its combination with alpha and beta receptors on the smooth muscle. When noradrenaline was administered, the amplitude decreased was a small amount compared to the large drop in adrenaline. This small response obtained due to addition of noradrenaline is due to its sensitivity to alpha receptors only. Combination of noradrenaline with alpha receptors increases the K efflux and influx in depolarized smooth muscle (Bulbring 1970, p.286). This increase in K conductance caused an increase in membrane permeability and inhibited depolarization. Adrenaline caused the relaxation of the smooth muscles coupled with hyperpolarization of the membrane as a result of increase of potassium ions. The action of the sympathetic transmitters; adrenaline and noradrenaline involved direct action via the alpha and bet a receptors (Paton Vizi 1969). Acetylcholine added again resulted in high increase in the amplitude, which decreased gradually. D-tubocurarine added to the organ bath had no effect on the contraction of the muscle as it maintained a constant tone. Lastly the acetylcholine added resulted in an increase in the amplitude. This observation agreed with the expected result. It was expected for the amplitude to be constant since there wasnt any acetylcholine in the organ bath for d-tubocurarine to replace. A spike in the amplitude was observed when acetylcholine was added. Acetylcholine replaced d-tubocurarine from the nicotinic receptors and restores the transmission of the stimulus2. This shows that the neuromuscular transmission block produced by d-tubocurarine is abolished when acetylcholine is added (Bradley 1989, p.47). CONCLUSION It was found that both adrenaline and noradrenaline affect the smooth muscles via alpha and beta receptors and produce a similar effect that is relaxation. Adrenaline is more potent than noradrenaline since it utilizes both alpha and beta receptors while the other one only affects beta receptors. Acetylcholine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that causes contraction of smooth muscles via both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. Atropine is a competitive antagonist of acetylcholine on the muscarinic receptors. D-tubocurarine is a mu

Ghost Story of the Sacrament Dog Essay -- Ghost Stories Urban Legends

The Sacrament Dog The modern ghost story has become a sort of rite of passage in American culture. At the youngest age, children are scared by their older siblings’ renditions of a ghoulish tale. Teenagers nationwide think it is their duty to investigate their town’s local haunting at least once before graduating high school. Once these teens transition into adulthood, they begin to scoff at the stories they once embraced, criticizing the irrational content and telling their children that they are silly for believing in such blasphemy. Finally, such disbelief is somewhat removed when people reach an elderly state, and they begin to relish in the joy of passing on ghostly stories to younger generations, not necessarily with the intention to scare, but with a desire to preserve a history and tradition unique to their personal life experience. Ghost stories are thus an integral part of the human life, not only reflecting the â€Å"hopes, fears, and anxieties† of various societies and cultures (Brunvand 2), but also making up a great portion of how humans define themselves and their lives. It is not surprising, then, that when I interviewed various members of the University of Maryland community, I was able to find many students with a ghost story (or two or three) on hand to share. One tale that I found particularly interesting and in-depth, and which will be discussed here, was told to me on one ironically-appropriate stormy night in a dorm room full of college students. The storyteller was a nineteen-year old, male freshman from Narstown, PA, majoring in English and Government and Politics. His mother is a nurse and his father is a telecommunications analyst. The story was about his Catholic college-preparatory high school in Penn... ...g the latter element, the anxiety of the Catholic faith to keep its young followers intact by instilling in them a fear of wondering astray or a hope for salvation is reflected in the story’s pro-Catholic sentiment, unnecessary for the general spookiness of the story, but fitting in the Catholic school setting. Thus, ghost stories are note intended to be merely spooky. Works Cited Brunvand, Jan Harold. The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends & Their Meanings. New York: W.W. Norton, 1981. Maryland Ghost and Spirit Association. Ed. Beverly Litsinger. 2006. 8 April 2006 http://marylandghosts.com/. Shadowlands Haunted Places Index - Pennsylvania. Ed. Dave Juliano. 2005. 8 April 2006 http://theshadowlands.net/places/pennsylvania.htm. UMD Legends Index. Ed. David Schlossman. 2005. 7 April 2006 http://www.wam.umd.edu/~dschloss/Legends/index.htm.

Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Nigeria Essay

Basically, Nigeria is a plural society and heterogeneous in virtually all the facet of life. The custom and tradition of Nigerians is so diverse to the extent that Nigeria as a country is now confronted with the problem of religion and ethnicity towards their political stability. The origin and history of ethnic conflict (societal wars and violence) can be traced from eternal (internal) state rivalry to external (physical). And its root cause is not very far from power competition and decision making over economic resources and other important human factor, like position. The implementation process has always involved more than one or two persons. In general concept, the author of this work traces conflict back to the first and early Patriarchal of human history and ever since then, there has been an increase (in various dimensions) of Conflict in the face of human world. Some are personal (internal) conflict, family, community, and group, intellectual, state, national and international in nature, to mention but few. In conforming to this idea, Badawi (2006) in his statement titled â€Å"World Apart† stated thus, â€Å"indeed the greatest discord today is among the descendants of Abraham. These are the people of the book, the followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, who had in fact shared a common beginning in the religion of Abraham†. In shedding more light in the above statement, Badawi statement goes far beyond religion, rather, he was tracing one of the earliest source of conflict which Badawi mentioned the off-springs of the said Abraham. Even before Abraham, there had been conflict, so it is as old as human history down to the Abrahamic period, to ancient kingdoms, Dukes, and Kings. In about 88 B. C. , King Mithriadates VI of Pontus invaded Roman territory in Asian Minor. He advised Asian debtors to kill their Roman creditors. Happy to reduce their credit card bills, the Asians massacred 80,000 Romans. Ethno-political conflicts have greatly shaped our present world and of course have its structural phenomenon, (William Easterly, 2001). For instances, the conflict we now call Israeli and Palestinian war, has been an ever-lengthening sort. The Assyrian, Babylonian war, by King Nebuchadnezzar of the hanging Garden in history, the Persia war, Alexander the Great (the Macedonian mad man in history), the German war of Adolf’s. Hitler, the Roman wars, narrowing all these down, we came to the horn of African continent which seem to be an epidemic field of conflicts of diverse kinds till date. The giant-lion of African continent, just like the origin of conflict is said to have stated very old in human history, even so in the case of Nigeria, which can be traced to the colonial period of history. Conflict takes different sizes and shapes with diverse reasons and purposes. Majority of the conflicts takes time before their escalation and at such, could have been transformed right at their respective early stages. The history of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria is also traced back to the colonial transgressions that forced the ethnic groups of the northern and southern provinces to become an entity called Nigeria in 1914. In the case of Nigeria situation, disturbing history of colonialism, this generated hatred and conflict among different ethnic groups. The task of addressing this seed of conflict planted by the British has been a complex one. After weakening the former diverse kingdoms, Emperors, etc now called Nigeria and reordering the groups’ politics, the colonial powers failed in nation building and providing for the people’s basic needs. Hence, unemployment, poverty increase, and due to these, conflict over scarce resources ensue. The Southern and Northern protectorates were also being amalgamated into a nation. Thereafter, the merging of different colonies into one country called Nigeria was forcefully done without the people’s consent. This was a major seed of conflict that is still troubling Nigeria today. This article is focused on the historical incidents of ethnic conflicts in within Nigeria societies, the cause of the conflicts and perhaps, the government actions towards ethnic conflict in the country. In conclusion, this paper will explore into decision-making (by the elites and those in authority) process has contributed immensely in generating the syndromes of conflict in the said state. The Nigerian political situation has witnessed more breaking of heads, than counting them. In fact, even when it has been convenient for heads to be counted, the outcome has always been the breaking of heads instead. Conflict in Nigeria is so intense because of lack of democratic behaviour. The head of the individual in the democratic context signifies citizenship. So when heads are broken in the Nigerian political community, the issue in respect of broken heads is citizenship. If conflict in Nigeria means the absence of democratic behaviour, it follows, therefore, that conflict in Nigeria is interwoven with the absence of democratic governance. Gurr (2000): has also shown that the incidence of conflicts at the global level declined in recent years with the deepening of democratisation. Nation-states where conflicts persist are those where what obtains is the democratisation of disempowerment (Ake 1996). Beyond the veneer of elections, the state remains ambushed, privatised, repressive and unpopular. The people who were tantalised by the prospect of a democratic revolution that would terminate decades of alienation and pauperisation have been short changed and given a ‘choice less democracy’ (Mkandawire 1999). The ‘credibility gap’ which fostered the De-linkage of the people from the state, and ignited social forces to struggle for democracy, is not being bridged (Rothchild 1995: 58). African peoples out of clear rational calculations sans atavistic attachments have turned their backs on the state ‘and given their loyalty to sub-national social formations such as the community, the sub nationality or ethnic groups’ (Ake 2000: 114). It is against this backdrop that the proliferation and exacerbation of violent ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria in the post-transition period can be appreciated. This article adopts an analytical framework that holds that The interface between ethnicity and democratisation is found in absence of effective citizenship and good governance in post-transition societies. In the circumstance that democracy does not go beyond the conduct of multiparty elections to include improvement in the quality of life of the people, there is frustration, and people who already feel alienated from the state are vulnerable and likely to be mobilised around counter-elites who exploit extant popular alienation from the state by whipping up sectarian sentiments. This has been the case in Nigeria and several multi-ethnic states of Africa (Osaghae 1994). Although the foregoing theoretical discussion has focused on ethnicity, the term ethno-religious is adopted because some of the recent violent conflicts to be examined were triggered by religious issues. The relevance of religion is also underlined by the fact that in Nigeria ethnic boundaries tend to coincide with religion, with the exception of the Yoruba ethnic group (Ibrahim 1999). The Nigeria state was amalgamated in the year 1914 by lord lugard. The various geographical areas or territory which was amalgamated to form Nigeria by the colonialist comprises of various cleavages, clans, towns even there were kingdoms and chiefdoms with diverse culture, language, religion, norms values, customs and political structures etc. The focus of the research monogram is to examine the role of religion and ethnicity in Nigeria nascent democracy. In Nigeria especially, religion plays a very vital and influential role in the society that has manifested itself as a potent force in the political development of the Nigerian state from pre-independence to post-independence. Hardly can the Nigerian state be talked about without reference to religion (Kukah, 1994; Falola, 1990; Kenny, 2006; International IDEA, 2000; Suberu, 2009). However, religion in Nigeria, at different levels, is mostly mentioned in negative terms. Or rather, historical events linked to religion tilts more towards its negative than its positive contribution to the Nigerian state. The Jihad, the civil war propaganda, the Sharia law controversy, the tensions provoked by the Nigerian accession to the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) and the incessant religious crises that have engulfed the Northern part mainly indicate that religion cannot be ignored or wished away in the Nigerian political development. Several religious crises have occurred in Nigeria. They have been documented as academic dissertations for some of them. This piece of work does not intend to start the discourse on religious violence anew but only recognizes the fact that as a recurrent phenomenon it is worth being explored further. Thus â€Å"Boko Haram† menace which gained global recognition and even press support ranging from July 2009 till date is a the central focus of this study together with other riots which has engulfed the Nigeria state from 1999 till date which most Nigeria educated elite believed that religion and ethnicity were the basic causes. The educated elite have conducted series of research on what the causes of this violent riots maybe. Most have concluded that it can be traced and linked to the failure of governance in Nigeria. 1. 2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS The mistake of 1914 has polarised the Nigeria society together with its citizens in which loyalty to the State is a mirage instead people pay loyalty to their various families and ethnic groups the effect of this can be traced to 1967 civil-war which disintegrate the country or in the political system which almost lead to secession of the country with the easterner believed to be the aggrieved ethnic in the war. Similarly Nigeria has a long history of religious crisis which has affected the political instability of Nigeria. The maintasine riot of 1980 can be said to be the first major religious riot in Nigerian history, claiming about 800 lives. The Boko Haram insurgence in the northern part of the country which has been directed mainly against the Christians, they have suffered a lot both physically, psychologically, economically, spiritually and even politically in the far North which has led political writers and pundits to affirm that Boko Haram conflict has its roots in Religion. The thrust of this work will be to examine the underlying reasons behind political instability in Nigeria using religion and ethnicity as a paradigm. 1. 3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY. The study will cover the impacts of religion and ethnicity towards the stabilization or in- stabilization of the Nigeria political system it will cover how religion and ethnicity have impacted on the political stability of Nigeria. Furthermore the study will emphasize more on the role the government is playing in stabilizing the un-stabilized country. 1. 4OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The following can be regarded as the aims and objective of the study 1. To know the meaning of religion, ethnicity, political stability, and political instability 2. To know how religion and ethnicity have negatively impacted on Nigerian political development 3. To develop possible solutions and panaceas to the problems of religions and ethnicity to Nigerian political in-stability 1. 5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1 What meaning does religion, ethnicity and political instability carries 2 How has religion and ethnicity impacted on the political stability of Nigeria 3 what are the possible solutions to the problem of religion and ethnicity in Nigeria political system 1. 6 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY Many a developing countries of the world are currently experiencing the problems which ethnicity and religion have caused. The ethnic problem which led to the apartheid era in South Africa is also the same ethnicity and religion problem which has almost disintegrated the Nigerian State. Recalling back to what happen during the civil war in the late sixties and early seventies which led to the introduction of the national youth service corp. by the then military president General Yakubu Gowon which aim at integrating back the almost disintegrated country. Books, Journals, Magazines, Pamphlets, and lot of researches have been written and carried out respectively on the issue of ethnicity and religion, and its impact on the Nigeria political stability. This research work will serve as an additional material to the issue on ethnicity and religion to political instability in Nigeria, this work will focus more on ethnicity and religion and its impact on Nigerian politics 1. 7RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology will be based on secondary data collections ranging from books, Journals Newspapers, News Magazines, Pamphlets and even the Internet. In conducting any research basically there are two methodologies employed by researchers which are the primary and the secondary methods. This research work will be basically conducted using the secondary methodology as earlier mentioned. 1. 8DEFINITION OF TERMS Ethnicity: According to the oxford advance learners dictionary ethnicity can simply mean â€Å"the fact of belonging to a particular race† from the dictionary meaning we can deduced the fact that Humans believed in race and they have passion for race which leads to humans ethnocentrism i. e. highly ethnocentric in nature. Ethnicity has a strategic interaction of persons and other actors, who have different beliefs, attitude’s, values and goals as they decide particular conflict the distribution of resource’s and general issues of political rules within a context of norms, expectations and institutions. Any of the rule, expectation and institutions may be reversed, maintained or inverted by the individual who win the right to control them, in the course of those political negotiations that are sometimes called cooperation, and sometimes called war, and are usually somewhere between the two. In another sense, ethnic identity are political resources just like money or vote. Instrumentalist like Micheal Banton and Micheal Hecthtar, argue that ethnic identity are not inherent in group or socio-formation of people. They see ethnic identity as socio-capital brought to bear on the political negotiation table by different groups and at different times. Hutchinson and Smith also argue that ethnic identity are an important resource that political Elite employ in securing the support of the masses as a strategy for gaining a desired good. These goods and or goals are â€Å"measured in terms of wealth, power, and status and†¦ joining or national communities helps to secure these ends either by influencing the state, or in certain situations, through secession. Religion: religion on its own part can be regarded as the belief in the existence of God or gods and the activity that are connected in the worship of them. Religion can also be stress further by meaning one of the system of faith that are based on the belief in the existence of a particular God or gods. For example the Jewish religion, Christianity Islam and other world religion. Furthermore in the classical and ancient ages religion has achieved a lot in their politics for example the doctrine of Islam was used in many Arab nations has their constitution even up till the present age. The Ancient Romans, also, during the time of Constantine accepted Christianity as a religion and a mode of life which also affected their political terrain. Religion in the 21 century is now used narrowly towards Christianity and Islam even though other religion still exist but the former two religion have elevated to prominence that other religion are now beneath them. For instance about Political stability: can depict the mean of a system of politics in which the government of that State is experiencing a stable government and peaceful existence in the State or in otherworld’s a legitimately accepted government by the people. Democratically governed States are believed to be stable. In the global sense every political entity must be ruled democratically without internal oppression or external aggression. Any country of the world that is free from the aforementioned point are regarded as stable political system in other words internal oppression has cause a lot of havoc to many democracies of the world which has infringed on their stability as noted by Ojo 2002. Descent Rule: These covers a larger set of cases that we commonly understand to be ethnic than the rules that ethnic groups must have a myth of common ancestry or common origin. But it excludes several cases in which individuals routinely consider themselves, and are considered as members, of a group that we classify as ethnic even when their parents were not coded as members of this group. Take for example the category â€Å"Yoruba† when it was invented in Nigeria in the nineteenth century. At this time period, the parents of those who were classified as Yoruba were not themselves classified as Yoruba for the reason that this category did not exist during their lifetimes. According to Descent Rule, then, the category Yoruba in the nineteenth century would not be coded as ethnic. But the category Yoruba is universally coded as an ethnic category by all comparative political scientists, without making a distinction between time periods. As another example, consider the category â€Å"Backward Caste† in India, which included as members individuals who possessed a given set of last names and/or ancestral occupations. The category was introduced by the Indian Central Government in 1990. Within a few years, 52% of the Indian population classified itself and was classified as backward. Yet the parents of those who termed themselves â€Å"Backward Caste† were not coded by themselves or by others as â€Å"Backward Caste† because, as in the case of the first generation of Yoruba’s, this category did not exist during their lifetimes Democracy: According to Abraham Lincoln he defines democracy as the government of the people by the people and for the people. In this wise democracy connotes a system of government in which all the people in a country will have the outright say on the government of their country although in a representative manner meaning that they will elect representatives that will represent their interest in the government. Advanced countries if the world where democracy is practiced completely they have national identity as opposed to the developing world where they have ethnic identity. Advanced democracies always believe in secularism in which every religion is accepted and embraced not a system in which part will have cognisance to a religion and the other will believe in other religion causing serious tension in such states like Nigeria. Federalism : Elasar (cited in Akande, 1996:1)† the formation of European union (EU) which simply begun as a trading partnership for coal and steel is now moving towards a more integrated political union founded upon federal principle of governance†. The African union (AU) which is the federation of African counties where a central government intended to be created with sharing or division of power among the federating unit, even the world highest organization body united Nation have in some little degree, evolved the principle of federalism. Federalism is a system of government which embraces unity in diversity. Federalism as a system of government is one in which there will be central and regional governments each one autonomous of each other.

Administration and Politics Dichotomy

Woodrow Wilson’s essay, â€Å"The Study of Administration† (1887), is about the separation of politics and administration in public administration. There is still a lot of debating among politicians and scholars alike whether this dichotomy is practical or not. There are some advantages and disadvantages about this theory. Wilson believed that it was needed to discover what the government could successfully do and how it could be done more efficiently; that the government needed to be reformed. He developed this theory because of increased corruption, urbanization and immigration.Due to these issues, he believed that less qualified people were getting public service jobs, therefore contributing to the increasing inefficiency of public administration. Wilson felt that politics should determine what the government should actually do and be decided by elected representatives. He believed administration should be the ones to put these policies into effect by appointed civil servants. In a euphoric world a political administration dichotomy would provide a solid foundation to a nation. It could even be beneficial in a society that is evolving; such as Administration and Politics Dichotomy 2 ne coming out of a third world status, the fall of a dictatorship, or even the overthrow of communism or socialism. This form of government can work well at a small town environment where there is a town manager to run the day to day operations of the community and a board of alderman (possibly also known as town council) that creates the laws the community operates under. That being said, it is my opinion that in today’s United States of America, separating politics and administration is not something that can be done successfully.Throughout the years politics has become more complicated, which means the line etween them has become very blurry. All levels of the government have come to rely on each other more and more. For example, every day new policies and laws are made or amended, and that means more people on more levels need to be consulted. Life is ever- changing, and so are all of the policies. The major advantage of implementing political administration dichotomy is politicians and administrators would be operating of the same philosophy of doing the right thing and not off of doing what each political party says. It could provide rationale Administration and Politics Dichotomy 3 or insulating the practice of public administration from political interference. A disadvantage of implementing a political administration dichotomy at the national level in a modern industrial nation that was previously run by a democratic government, such as the United States of America, would require having an exclusive relationship between the politicians who create political policies and the public administrators who oversee the administrative processes. This would remove the check and balance system established in the United States Constitution. These checks and balances have become the foundation of law in this country.Wilson’s public administration dichotomy theory would make the governmental life so much simpler. Unfortunately, the world and the people in it are anything but simple. To believe that we could have one group of people make up the policies, and another to put those in to action without those people relying on each other’s opinions and knowledge is absurd. The idea is so simple, but implementing it would be so complicated. The debate about the practicality of this dichotomy had been going on since it was written in 1887, and will probably still Administration and Politics Dichotomy